m\^t '§, ^. ^tU ^tbrarg

^ortl; Carolma ^toh College

Y/55

S00297966 $

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE DATE INDICATED BELOW AND IS SUB- JECT TO AN OVERDUE FINE AS POSTED AT THE CIRCULATION DESK.

APR - 6 1988

m ' ^

m

b «90

DEC 1 1 1990 JAN 1 9 199,

FEB 1 9 1991 APh ? 7 1991

MAR Is^Hlfi

100M/7^

OCT 2 J 2002

THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD

Other Books by the Same Author

LANDSCAPE GARDENING

PLUMS AND PLUM CULTURE

FRUIT HARVESTING. STORING, MARKETING

SYSTEMATIC POMOLOGY

DWARF FRUIT TREES

\v

^4t

The American Apple Orchard

A Sketch of the Practice of Apple Growing in North America at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century

Ff'ArWAUGH

Fii//y Illustrated

ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

NEW YORK

Copyright, 1908, by ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

P)intcd in U. S. A.

TO

THADDEUS L. KINNEY

APPLE GROWER

The American Apple Orchard

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page I. The Geography of Apple Growing 1

II. Apple Soils 5

Exposures

III. Windbreaks 8

IV'. Winterkilling 14

V. Starting the Orchard 17

A Good Nursery Tree.

How to Get Trees.

Methods of Propagation.

Fall vs. Spring Planting.

Distances for Planting.

Planting Tables.

Double Planting.

Preparation for Planting.

Planting Out the Trees.

Double- Working. VI. Orchard Cultivation 48

Objects of Cultivation. VII. Methods of Cultivation ......'.... 63

VIII. Cover Crops 69

Methods of Management.

The Various Crops.

Quantity of Seed Per Acre. IX. Pruning 11

High Heads vs. Low Heads.

The Framework.

The Second Stage.

The Fruiting Stage.

Odd Years.

ix

X TABLE OF CONTENTS

PaKo The Time to Prune. Painting Wounds. Pruning Tools. How to Make the Cut.

X. Feeding the Trees 94

XI. The Insect Campaign .99

XII. The Principal Diseases Ill

XIII. Other Troubles 119

XIV. Spraying Machinery 123

XV. Solutions for Spraying 131

Bordeaux Mixture.

Copper Sulphate Solution.

The Lime-Sulphur Mixture.

Paris Green.

Arsenate of Lead.

Arsenite of Lime.

Soluble Oils.

Combined Insecticides and Fungicides.

Dust Sprays.

Some General Observations.

The Spraying Campaign.

XVI. Harvesting and Marketing the Fruit 149

Picking Apples. Sorting Apples. The Apple Barrel. Apple* Boxes. Packing Apples. Apple Storage.

XVII. The Family Orchard 182

Rules for Choosing Varieties.

XVIII. Renovation of Old Orchards 188

XIX. The Selection of Varieties 192

Remarks on Particular Varieties. Varieties for Various Districts. Keeping Quality of \'arieties. XX. Catalog of Varieties 2U5

The American Apple Orchard

I

THE GEOGRAPHY OF APPLE GROWING

The apple is the most widely grown of tree fruits ; and though it cannot cover quite so great a range of latitude as the plum, it is, after all, more generally known and prized than any other fruit of any longi- tude or zone. Nevertheless the extreme northern and southern agricultural regions of our continent are practically outside the apple country. Even within the apple country there are great inequalities of dis- tribution. Certain regions are not well adapted to apple culture, while in others this fruit has become the basis of a great industry. The ten leading states, as shown by the number of apple trees reported in the census of 1900, were as follows:

States Trees

Missouri 20,040,399

New York 15,054,832

Illinois 13,430,006

Ohio 12,952,625

Kansas 11 ,848,070

Pennsylvania 11,774,211

.^ Michigan 10,927,899

Kentucky 8,757,238

Indiana 8,624,593

Virginia 8,190,025

THE GEOGRAPHY OF APPLE GROWING 3

Of course some of these states rank above others simply because of their size. Statistics taken by counties show in a yet more striking manner how the planting- of apple trees has been developed in special localities. The ten counties in the United States which led in the number of trees growing in 1900 were as follows :

County State Trees

Benton, Arkansas 1,613,366

Washington, Arkansas 1,555.146

Niagara, New York 924,086

A\'ayne, New York 796,610

Marion, Illinois 795»i88

Monroe, New York 789,409

Clay, Illinois 751.724

Erie, New York 631,283

Orleans, New York 629,401

Wayne, Illinois, 604,215

It is a striking fact that these ten counties represent only three states.

There are several well-recognized apple sections which may be separately characterized. The principal ones are:

1. The Lake Ontario Section This comprises the northwestern counties of New York and adjacent parts of Ontario. A part of southeastern Michigan naturally belongs to this belt. It is a section largely devoted to Baldwin and Rhode Island Greening. Other varieties grown commercially on a considerable area are Northern Spy, King and Roxbury.

2. The Mississippi Valley Section This includes portions of Ohio, Indiana, Kentucky, Kansas and Ar- kansas, with practically all of ^Missouri and Illinois.

4 THE a.mi:ricax apple orchard

While this great region can be subdivided to some ex- tent, yet varieties and methods are sufficiently alike in the several states to justify us in grouping them to- gether. Ben Davis is the characteristic variety, though many other sorts are grown commercially, as Jonathan, Grimes, York Imperial, Willow and Missouri Pippin.

3. The Allegheny Section This comprises those lands along the slopes of the Allegheny mountains l3'ing in Pennsylvania, western Maryland, West Vir- ginia, western Virginia, eastern Tennessee and west- ern North Carolina. The characteristic variety here is York Imperial, though other varieties are extensive- ly grown, as Ben Davis, Paragon, Winesap, Grimes, and in A'irginia the famous Albemarle Pippin.

4. The Nova Scotia Section, comprising rather limited areas in Nova Scotia, where, however, the ap- ple-growing industry is highly developed. The most striking feature of the Nova Scotian industry is the development of the British markets. The leading va- rieties grown are Baldwin, Roxbury (locally called Nonpareil), Northern Spy, Rhode Island Greening and Gravenstein.

5. The Pacific Coast Section, including several segregated and somewhat dissimilar districts in Wash- ington, Oregon and California. The varieties mostly grown are Esopus, Jonathan, Newtown Pippin and Yellow Belleflower.

There are various places outside these sections where apples are grown commercially and where very interesting local adaptations are to be found. These five sections, however, produce the great bulk of all the fruit which annually reaches foreign and domestic markets.

II

APPLE SOILS

Tiiic apple thrives on a great variety of soils. In- deed, it is grown to some extent on almost every kind of arable soil in America. When planted on large commercial areas with a view to profit, however, it be- comes necessary to select those particular soils which give the best results.

' First of all, it is obvious that apple trees can be ac- commodated only in a deep soil. Naturally the roots extend to considerable depths, and unless a porous open subsoil is present the tree does not have proper opportunity for rooting. In soils with impervious hardpan, or in those where the water table is near the surface, apple trees do not succeed well. It is gen- erally known that apple trees are very impatient of wet feet. This can easily be seen in orchards where there are small spots of poorly drained land where the water stands. In such spots the trees are always poor, and they usually die out early, leaving blank places in the orchard. It has been observed that a twisted growth of the apple tree trunk indicates imperfect un- derdrainage. Some of these soils of course can be improved, or the difficulty entirely corrected, by thor- ough underdrainage. As a rule, however, only those soils which are naturally deep and well drained should be chosen for apple orchards.

A somewhat gravelly soil, or even one verging somewhat on stony, has been found by experience to be highly satisfactory for apple growing, provided

6 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD

only there is an abundance of plant food present. The gravel and small stones doubtless assist in the drain- age, and this fact probably explains in part the su- periority of such soils. As a rule we may say that gravelly loam, fairly rich in plant food, is the ideal apple soil. The soil surveys now being made in various parts of the country have, in a general way, verified the commonly accepted opinion on this point. Some of the soils well known as successful apple producers have now been described, mapped and given name's. That soil known as Porter's black loam, found in ex- tensive areas along the eastern slopes of the Alle- gheny mountains, is noted for its adaptation to the growing of apples. It is upon this soil that the Al- bemarle Pippin of Virginia is grown. In western New York the Miami stony loam may be mentioned as a soil of well-proved adaptability for apples. This is widely represented in Wayne county, known as one of the best apple-growing counties in America.

In other parts of the country sandy loams or even silt loams are found to be successful in the production of apples. The Miami silt loam furnishes the prin- cipal basis of a large apple-growing industry in Clin- ton county, 111., while the so-called Marion silt loam is the soil chiefly developed in the famous Clay county, 111., apple district. On the Delaware Peninsula, where the production of early apples is coming to be an ex- tensive and profitable industry, orchards are planted chiefly on the Norfolk loam and Norfolk silt loam.

A rule which the writer has been in the habit of giving for popular use is that any soil especially adapt- ed to the growing of Irish potatoes will usually be satisfactory for apples. If any difference is to be distinguished it would be in the way of allowing a

AITLE SOILS 7

larger amount of gravel or loose broken stone in an apple orchard than in a potato field. Indeed, there seems to be no limit in the amount of loose stone which may be present in an apple soil, except the . limit of cultivation. Even this limit is not so soon reached as might be expected, for proper tools will give satisfactory cultivation in apple orchards contain- ing remarkable quantities of broken stone on the surface.

EXPOSURES

A great deal of time has been spent in the discus- sion of the proper exposure for orchards. The popu- lar theory is that southern exposures are dangerous because they induce early blossoming of tlie trees, thus giving opportunity for the blossoms to be killed by late frosts. In those localities where serious late frosts frequently occur this objection obviously has some force, but a careful study of the situation reveals the fact that such localities are decidedly rare. High- lands with good air drainage are generally pre- ferred ; but this for other reasons than because of late spring frosts.

Ill

WINDBREAKS

A PROPER site being chosen, some protection from wind may still be desirable. Tracts of land freel}- ex- posed to constant hard winds are undesirable, but al- most any orchard may be benefited by a certain amount of protection.

The utility of windbreaks for orchard protection is a subject which has been often discussed among Amer- ican fruit growers. It is a subject, moreover, on which a fair unanimity has been reached. There may still be a few exceptions to the statements noted below, but for the most part the matter is fairly well settled.

There are three general purposes for which wind- breaks are cultivated ; ( i ) Protection during winter ; (2) summer protection; (3) protection of fruit in picking time. It will be best to discuss these in order.

Perhaps the object which has been most often dis- cussed is that of winter protection. It seems to have been felt, especially in the more northern states, that the common fruits are all more or less tender and, therefore, subject to damage during the cold weather of winter. A great deal has been said about winter- killing; and, indeed, more or less damage to young growth and to fruit buds has been observed by almost every fruit grower, no matter in what part of the country his work has been done.

It must "be said, however, that the principal use of the windbreak does not seem to be that of furnishing winter protection. Nor is it the best use. Even when

WINDBREAKS Q

winterkilling- is a serious factor .-in the management of an orchard the greatest -protection does not come apparently from the use of windbreaks. It is doubt- ful if they ever mitigate low temperatures to any important extent. They do stop the wind to some degree, even in winter, and thereby reduce slightly the evaporation of moisture from the twigs, which is apt to be the greatest source of winterkilling. Per- haps they are more useful as a means of winter pro- tection from the fact that they usually hold the snow on the ground. They also prevent the blowing of leaves and such other litter as may help to hold the snow, and which may give some protection. The snow and litter thus retained on the ground protect the soil from severe freezing, and from alternate freez- ing and thawing ; whereas, without the windbreak, the ground might remain bare, and the roots of the fruit trees might be disastrously frozen in consequence.

In most parts -of the. cojuntry the protection of trees in summer is of vastly more importance than their protection in winter. The mechanical strain brought about by the pressure of excessive winds is often the source of serious trouble to the orchardist. In ex- posed localities or where heavy winds prevail during growing time it is very difficult to secure a symmet- rical top on rapid growing trees. It is a not uncom- mon sight to see a young tree with the top all on the north or northwest side, due-to the action of the wind. A windbreak which prevents the sweeping of direct winds across the orchard during the summer, more- over, is of considerable he-lp in the conservation of moisture. It has been shown by careful experiments, and it is a matter of wide observation among practical men, that the soil dries out very rapidly when the

lO THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD

wind is allowed to pass over it, and that evaporation is much less from ground not open to the sweep of the wind. Since the conservation of moisture is one of the large and fundamental problems in orchard man- agement, the use of the windbreak in securing this end is highly desirable.

Perhaps the most important use of all to which the windbreak is put in the management of apple orchards is the protection of the fruit toward picking time. It is not at all uncommon for heavy September gales to bring down 25, 50 or even 75 per cent of the entire crop of apples ; the losses from this source some- times amount to hundreds, or even thousands of dol- lars, in individual^rchards.

There are objections which always come up with more or less force when the planting of a windbreak is considered. In the first place the windbreak takes up a certain amount of land. It never requires less room than would an entire row of fruit trees of the same length, and it usually requires more. Even when a space somewhat greater than this is allowed to the windbreak, it is often found that the outer rows of fruit trees are starved by the greedy feeding of the trees in the windbreak. In other cases atmospheric drainage is seriously interfered with, though this defect can usually be remedied by proper foresight. In some cases windbreaks harbor insect pests, but though this objection has been frequently urged against them, it has usually been considerably over- drawn. In fact, the only important objection, in the judgment of the writer, is the one first mentioned.

All windbreaks will naturally be planted on that side of the orchard from which the wind comes. Since the prevailing winds are sometimes from one quarter

WINDBREAKS II

at one season of tlie year and from another quarter at another season, it heconies necessary to consider whether the windbreak is intended chiefly for winter, summer, or picking-time protection. Sometimes all three are required; many of the best orchards have windbreaks around their entire circumference. There is too much trouble and expense, however, attached to the maintenance of a windbreak to justify a man in keeping one where it is not plainly required.

The materials which may form the windbreak are various. Each man must judge for himself which is most practicable in his own locality and under his own circumstances. In many cases the lay of the land may be depended on. Some of the best orchards and fruit-growing regions in America are to be found on sharp mountain slopes or along steep hillsides. In such cases the slope of the mountain or hill may be sufficient to furnish all necessary protection from the wind. In other cases natural woods or belts of tim- ber occur in convenient proximity to the orchard and in such a way as to furnish the desired shelter. Nat- ural woods give the greatest possible protection, but, more than any other windbreak, they are open to the charge of harboring noxious insects, rabbits, mice and other vermin.

Under most circumstances it is necessary to plant artificial timber belts for the protection of the orchard where protection is desired. These may be either of evergreen trees or of deciduous species. The conifers, such as pines, spruces, hemlock, and arbor vitae, all make good windbreaks, and are especially desiraljle where winter protection is the main consideration. They are somewhat more difficult to transplant and establish than deciduous trees are, but there is seldom

12 THE AMIIRICAN APPLE ORCHARD

any difficulty with them, provided they are intelH- gently handled. The particular species which should be chosen cannot be pointed out. If spruce thrives best in the soil and locality under consideration, then spruce should be planted. In some neighborhoods arbor vit^e is easy to establish and is very satisfactory. In other places the white pine is generally regarded as one of the best trees for protective timber belts.

Deciduous trees, besides being easier to establish, are usually more rapid growers during their early years. It is easier to form a dense belt of them in a short time. They are more likely to thin out below, thus avoiding the objection of obstructing atmospheric drainage. In case a very thick and altogether effective windbreak is desired, alternate rows of evergreens and broad-leaved species would best answer the require- ments.

In some orchards it is possible to arrange the fruit trees in such a way that they will furnish more or less protection for each other. It is customary in some localities to plant the trees closer together east and west than they are north and south. They soon form thick rows sometimes almost hedgerows of trees running crosswise of the course of the principal winds. Sometimes tall growing and sturdy varieties like Spy and Ben Davis are planted on the outside of the orchard next to the wind. The fruit of Spy trees very seldom blows off. The same is true in a less ex- tent of Ben Davis. Such varieties may be used, there- fore, as windbreaks for the rest of the orchard.

In young orchards temporary protection may some- times be secured at picking time by planting between the rows with tall-growing varieties of dent corn. The corn will reach such a height before picking time

WINDBREAKS I3

as to prevent the too free circulation of the wind among- the trees. This plan, however, is a makeshift and not to be generally recommended.

When trees are planted for windbreaks they should nearly always be set at the same time the fruit trees are. If spruce, pine or hemlock are to be used, how- ever, and if it can be conveniently done, it may be best to put out the windbreak two or three years in ad- vance of the fruit trees. Spruce and pine start so slowly that they often give very inadequate protection during the first years, when perhaps their help is most needed by the young- fruit trees.

IV

WINTERKILLING

In considering geographic and climatic factors we must give some attention to another matter which is of considerable importance in certain locahties. Winter- kilHng has always been a large and interesting problem with fruit growers in this country, but is of compara- tively little importance in growing apples, especially in the management of commercial orchards. In the great apple-growing regions winterkilling is practi- cally a negligible factor. In sections where winter- killing is a serious danger apple growing can never become an extensive industry. Since, however, every householder in every civilized community in temper- ate climates wishes to grow some apples, and since winterkilling is a really serious matter in some of these localities, it is necessary to consider this subject with due care.

Winterkilling is of three sorts: (i) The killing of the buds; (2) the killing of the young growth; (3) root killing. The killing of fruit buds, though a very serious matter in peach growing and with some va- rieties of plums, very seldom occurs with apples. Ap- ple buds are well protected and hardy. Any variety sufficiently hardy to carry its wood through the winter will usually save its buds also.

The young growth on apple trees sometimes kills in severe winters. This damage is more likely to occur on newly planted trees than on those well established. It has been shown that this damage occurs largely

14

WINTERKILLING 15

through the drying out of the young shoots, due to the fact that, while some evaporation still goes on during the winter, the tree cannot take up water from the frozen soil to make good this evaporation. The young shoots, therefore, become so thoroughly dried out dur- ing cold weather that the tissues are killed. Some va- rieties, of course, are more subject to this damage than others, and in northern regions a distinct variation of hardiness among different varieties is well recognized. The Russian apples, so widely recommended a few years ago on account of their superior hardiness, are, as a class, conspicuous for their ability to withstand this sort of damage.

There are no very certain means of preventing win- terkilling of this kind. Anything which can be done to prevent the ground from freezing deeply and for a long period will give the best possible protection. Heavy cover crops which hold the snow and protect the soil from freezing are especially valuable. It has usually been said that pains should be taken to have the wood ripen up as early in the fall as possible as a means of guarding against winterkilling. This theory has unquestionably been overworked.

Root killing is doubtless the most serious form of winter damage suffered by apple trees in northwestern localities. The great freeze of February, 1899, which killed hundreds of thousands of trees in the north- western states, accomplished this destruction chiefly by root killing. The ground was bare of snow at the time and the cold was very intense. When it is con- sidered that all ordinary orchard trees are grafted or budded upon miscellaneous stocks, it is easy to under- stand that nearly all of these stocks might be more tender than the l^ardy varieties which had been grafted

l6 THE AMERICAN APrLE ORCHARD

upon them. Thus the roots were killed in many cases where the tops vvere able to withstand the weather.

In cases where root killing is likely to occur from time to time that is, in sections where severe freezing- is likely to come when the ground is not covered by snow special precautions should be taken to prevent this sort of damage. The best of these is to propagate the apple upon a very hardy stock; and probably the best of these stocks is the Cherry crab ( Pints baccata). Unfortunately these stocks are available only in small quantities and at comparatively high prices. Trees propagated on these roots cannot be bought in any ordinary nursery. The next best pre- ventive of root killing, and the one easiest to adopt, is the cover crop. A good heavy cover of clover, alfalfa, or vetch gives the ground some protection in itself and helps to hold whatever snow may fall.

V

STARTING THE ORCHARD

A MATTER of prime importance in starting an apple orchard is to begin with good trees. Everybody seems to know what constitutes a good horse, a good pair of boots, or a well-made suit of clothes, but very few people appear to have the necessary basis for judging the value of nursery stock. It is altogether amusing to see a file of ordinary customers select nursery trees for themselves in nurseries where such direct purchase is possible. Yery often large trees are selected with- out regard to the roots, apparently with the idea that the bigger the top the better the tree. Even when more regard is paid to the proper balance of branches with the root system the principal idea still seems to be to get the biggest trees. The more such a customer can get for the money the better he seems satisfied. Even when these crude errors are avoided others almost as bad are fallen into. Yet this matter is a very important one. It is just as desirable to have good nursery trees as to have good seed, and every farmer considers this one of the first requirements in agriculture. There is as much difference between good trees and poor ones as between good coffee and chicory mixture. On what, then, should a man base his judgment?

A GOOD NURSF.RV TREE

First of all, the trees should be free from insects and disease. Nowadays nursery stock is nearly all liable

l8 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD

to official inspection, and this inspection professes to discover all trees infested with obnoxious insects or fungous diseases and to throw them out of the mar- ket. A great deal has been accomplished by this sys- tem of inspection, although it must be said that in some places it is less effective than in others, and even at its best it cannot furnish an absolute guarantee of immunity. The man who buys the trees should him- self inspect them and he ought to be sure that he is able to recognize the more important noxious in- sects and fungous disease likely to be transmitted in nursery stock.

In the second place a tree should be well grown. It should be clean and straight, with a well-formed head. Of course the size and form of the head de- pend greatly on the variety to which the tree belongs. Some varieties of apples make better heads than others. One should not expect Longfield to have as well-formed heads as Ben Davis or Mcintosh. The fact that tree buyers persist in laying too much stress on this point has had a great influence in driving out of the market many good varieties of apples simply because they do not naturally form comely tops in the nursery. While the buyer will always seek to secure the cleanest and best-formed trees, he will not enforce this rule at the expense of good varieties.

A tree should be not only well grown, but well pre- served. Most of our nursery stock, especially fruit trees, is now dug in the fall and sold in the spring. During the winter it is kept in storage. The idea of keeping nursery trees in cold storage, as eggs and apples are kept, appeals to most men as a dangerous practice. It is not necessarily so, however. If trees are well managed in storehouses they do not lose any

STARTING THE ORCHARD IQ

part of their vitality. Yet if they are mismanaged, it is always to their detriment. If the bark looks black and shriveled, or if it is dry and hard, or if it is soft and loose, peeling off readily when touched, then the tree has not been well kept. It is likely to be in bad condition and the chances are it will not grow.

There is sometimes a controversy broached regard- ing the comparative merits of northern and southern grown nursery trees. So far as we are concerned this is also involved with the question as to whether or not it is best to plant trees grown in the immediate neighborhood. There is a feeling in many quarters that northern grown nursery trees are more hardy, and in all cases this is supplemented by the feeling that home-grown trees are likely to be more successful through being already acclimated. Long observation and experiment have convinced me that these points are usually very much overdrawn. There may be something in them at times, but I have really never been able to see it, although the matter has been fre- quently tested under my observation. If the tree is sound, well grown, free from disease, well kept and otherwise in good physical condition, it is a safe tree to plant. Any inquiries as to its place of origin are hardly worth while. Indeed, such inquiries are quite likely to be futile, because it is nearly always im- possible to ascertain where a certain tree has actually been grown. Very few nurserymen grow all the trees they sell. They depend on buying what they need in whatev-er market is most advantageous. It is, there- fore, a matter of considerable satisfaction to feel that we do not need to trace the history of every tree, but that we may plant with confidence any nursery stock which conforms to the simple physical tests herewith

20 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD

outlined. Such tests every man can make with his own hands and eyes.

HOW TO GET TREES

When a man starts into orchard planting he has to have trees. These he can either propagate for him- self or buy from a nursery. When large commercial oichards are projected it is possibly best to undertake the propagation of the necessary nursery stock on the premises, providing the delay thereby incurred is not too serious an objection. The advantage of propa- gating at home is not so much that the trees are se- cured more cheaply, though there is something in that, as it is that they may be had when wanted and that their history is always known. The planter secures varieties which are true to name. They are the kinds he has chosen. They are propagated from reliable stock. He knows the entire history of every tree, and this is often of importance. There is a considerable advantage, too, in having trees at hand at planting time. There are no delays in shipping, no damage to trees in storage, and the stock is on hand when the ground is ready, the holes dug, and the men prepared to plant.

Now that the San Jose scale has come to be a fac- tor in orchard planting in certain districts, there is an added advantage in having home-grown trees. Nursery stock bought from a grower in another neighborhood or state often requires fumigation. Either one must run the risks of fumigation or else the danger of infection from the scale. Both these risks may usually be avoided by home propagation.

STARTING THE ORCHARD 21

In some quarters there is a well-founded prejudice I hardly dare to call it more in favor of tree- breeding by the selection of scions from bearing trees of special individual excellence. It is easy to observe that in a block of apple trees of one variety, say, AIc- Intosh or Greening or Winesap, there are individual trees which bear more and better fruit than their neighbors. In so far as this is not due to the influence of the stock, but to the individuality of the tree itself, it can presumably be reproduced by grafting. From such trees accordingly do the modern apple growers of the advanced school prefer to select their scions. The present writer warmly shares the prejudice in favor of this practice, but admits that it rests on a plausible theory rather than on an established prin- ciple.

When the nursery stock is grown on the place the strongest and best trees may be selected, a large number of inferior specimens being discarded. One is apt to get, therefore, a generally higher grade of stock, providing he is willing to stand a certain amount of loss in the nursery, when he plants from his own nursery rows.

Nevertheless in the great majority of cases it is more practicable to secure trees from some nursery- man than it is to grow them at home. This is em- phatically true if the number to be planted is com- paratively small, and if the planter is not an expert propagator. It is the nurseryman's business to propa- gate trees, and he can do it better and more cheaply than the unpracticed fruit grower. The suspi-cion usu- ally attached to nursery-grown trees is almost always unfounded. The unsophisticated farmer has been ha- bitually gtdled by the fruit tree agents from the earliest

22 THE AMERICAN APPLE ORCHARD

times, but the very large majority of nurserymen are honest and reHable. They grow good trees as nearly true to name as careful foresight can insure, and they sell them at reasonable prices. The planter should simply be sure that the nurseryman with whom he deals is a good reliable business man. He should take the same precautions which he would in buying a barrel of sugar, a dairy cow or a carload of fencing wire. The itinerant fruit tree agent should never be patronized, of course, except to get rid of him never with the expectation of getting any useful trees.

The prices of nursery stock are so low, and the character of the goods furnished generally so high, that the orchard planter can hardly consider this one of his serious expenses. Above all other things he should not practice a false economy in this part of the project. The best trees should be bought from the most reliable man in the market. A saving of $2 or $3 in the price of nursery stock may be lost a hundred times over before the first crop is gathered.

METHODS OF PROPAGATION

A great deal has been said at different times and in different parts of the country about methods of propagation. There has been a long argument over the respective merits of grafting and budding trees ; and the advantages and disadvantages of so-called "whole-root" grafting as compared with the "piece- root" grafting have been hotly debated in many a horticultural gathering. On this point the experience of planters is quite strongly agreed. The net result may be stated as follows : The various methods of

STARTING THE ORCHARD 23

propagation have their advantages and disadvan- tages in the hands of a nurseryman. Some are more economical for him because they give quicker or surer results, or because they are less expensive. But for the fruit grower there is absolutely no advantage of one method over another. Grafted trees will live as long and thrive as well as budded trees, and those grown on piece-roots are just as good as those grown on whole-roots. It is still a question of getting sound, thrifty trees. That is the only point of interest to the orchardist. Such a great amount of testimony has been collected in recent years on this point that the truth may be stated with considerable positiveness.

At what age should a tree be planted ? Some plant- ers prefer one-year-old stock, and when it is large and well grown it is almost, or quite as good, as two- year-old stock. For the most part, however, two- year-old stock is to be reconmiended for apples. Anything older than two years is strictly undesirable.

FALL vs. SPRING PLANTING

The question is often asked as to wdiethcr fall or spring planting is to be preferred. The answer is that there is not much choice and that sometimes one season will prove more favorable, while at other times the other season is better. There are certain general advantages in fall planting. There is more time for the work then than during the spring rush ; it is easier to buy nursery stock and get the varieties of one's selection ; the trees if properly planted in good soil will make some root growth and will be- come, to a considerable degree, established before the

24 Tllli AMI:KICAN apple OIUIIARD

opening of spring-, so they start in the year with a certain advantage over the spring-planted trees.

On the other hand there are some drawbacks to fall ])lanting. In order to sell trees betimes in the fall nurserymen sometimes dig them prematurely. If the soil is not well drained, or if other conditions are unfavorable, the trees may receive serious damage during the winter. They may also be injured by mice. On the whole, the case seems to stand like this: When all conditions are favorable trees good, soil good, drainage perfect, planting well done then fall setting will be successful and is to be preferred. Lacking any of these conditions, spring planting is safer.

DISTANCES FOR PLANTING

In the principal apple-growing districts there is a fairly unanimous agreement that 35 feet apart each way is the proper spacing for standard apple trees in orchards. On fertile lands in western New York 40x40 feet is often recommended ; while in a few sec- tions, notably in California, closer planting is prac- ticed. It may be said positively that the present tend- ency is toward ' closer planting. This is coupled everywhere with a tendency toward closer pruning and the formation of smaller headed trees. This tendency in turn is strongly promoted by the spread of the San Jose scale and of other noxious insects and diseases which require very thorough spraying. Smaller trees are more easily sprayed, and may be more closely planted.

If one is to follow the conventional methods of orchard management, therefore, he will plant stand- ard apple trees 35x35 feet. He may make this

n»EltTY UBRARY

n. C State College

STARTING THE ORCHARD 25

40x40 feet if he i^Iants large .growing- varieties, like Spy, on rich land. On the other hand if he has clear and definite plans for repressive pruning he may plant closer. This may mean as close as 20x20 feet with small growing sorts, like Wealthy and Duchess. But such close planting must not be undertaken except by the man who has the knowledge and the courage to carry out a rigorous system of management all along the line.

PLANTING TABLES

The following table will show the number of trees to the acre planted at various distances:

Trees Trees

Per Acre Per Acre

9ft.x 9 ft 537 12 ft. X 30 ft 121

9 '■ X 10 ' 484 12 " X 36 " 100

9 " X 11 " 440 12 " X 42 " 86

9 " X 12 " 403 12 " X 48 " 75

9 " X 14 " 345 12 " X 54 " 67

9 " X 15 " 322 12 " X 60 " 60

9 " X 18 " 268 15 " X 15 " 193

9 " X 20 " 242 15 " X 18 " 161

10 " X 10 " 435 15 " X 20 " 145

10 " X 12 " 363 15 " X 24 " 121

10 " X 15 " 290 15 " X 30 " 96

10 " X 18 " 242 15 " X 36 " 80

10 " X 20 " 217 15 " X 42 " 69

10 " X 24 " 181 15 " X 48 " 60

10 " X 30 " 145 15 " X 54 " 53

10 " X 36 " 121 15 " X 60 " 48

10 " X 42 " 103 18 " X 18 " 134

10 " X 45 " 96 18 " X 20 " 121

10 " X 48 " 90 18 " X 24 " 100

10 " X 54 " 80 18 " X 30 " 80

10 " X 60 " 72 18 " X 36 " 67

12 " X 12 " 302 18 " X 42 " 57

12 " X 15 " 242 18 " X 48 " 50

12 " X 18 " 201 18 " X 54 " 44

12 " X 20 " 181 18 " X 60 " 40

12 " X 24 " 151 20 " X 20 " 108

STARTING THE ORCHARD 2/

Trees Trees

Per Acre Per Acre

''Oft. X 24 ft 90 38ft. X 42ft 27

20 " X 30 " 72 38 " X 48 " 23

20 " X 36 " 60 38 " X 50 " 22

20 " X 42 " 51 38 " X 54 " 21

20 " X 48 " 45 38 " X 60 " 19

20 " X 54 " 40 40 " X 40 " 27

20 " X 60 " 36 40 " X 42 " 25

' 24 " X 24 " 75 40 " X 48 " 22

24 " X 30 " 60 40 " X 50 " 21

24 " X 36 " 50 40 " X 54 " 20

24 " X 42 " 43 40 " X 60 " 18

24 " X 48 " i7 42 " X 42 " 24

24 " X 54 " Zi 42 " X 48 " 21

24 " X 60 " 30 42 " X 54 " 19

Mo " X 30 " 48 42 " X 60 "